Lateral umbilical ligament

Lateral umbilical ligaments/folds are bilateral raised ridges of parietal  peritoneum in the deep aspect of the anterior abdominal wall overlying the inferior epigastric vessels. The paired folds originate medial to the deep inguinal ring  and end at the arcuate line on the posterior aspect of the anterior abdominal wall.

 The medial fossae  lie between the medial and lateral umbilical folds. The lateral fossae lie laterally to the lateral umbilical folds.

The folds are 2 of the 5 umbilical folds.

Significance

Because the lateral umbilical folds overly the inferior epigastric vessels, they are used as an important reference point for inguinal hernia classification. Direct hernias occur medial to the lateral umbilical folds whereas indirect hernias occur laterally.

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Median umbilical ligament

The median umbilical ligament is a fibrous band located in the anterior portion of the abdomen, anterior to the urinary bladder. 

It contains the urachus, which is an embryonic remnant resulting from involution of the allantoic duct that connects the fetal urinary bladder to the umbilicus.

The median umbilical ligament is an unpaired ligamentous structure in human anatomy . It is covered by the median umbilical fold.

It extends from the apex of the urinary bladder to the umbilicus, on the deep surface of the anterior abdominal wall.

Lateral to this structure are the medial umbilical ligament and lateral umbilical ligament.

The median umbilical ligament may be used as a landmark for surgeons who are performing laparoscopy, such as laparoscopic inguinal hernia  repair.

Brain and eyeball card item 1 viva questions as per bmdc curriculum 2012

 General introduction to the nervous system, cranial cavity and orbit.

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1. Classification : anatominal and functional
2. central nervous system(CNS): and peripheral nervous system(PNS): parts
3. somatic nervous system control which organs / tissue of body, motor and sensory function : explain
4. autonomic nervous system:  control which organ / tissue of body, parts, function of sympathetic and parasympathetic system  
5.  nervous tissue:  Composition and Draw and label  
6. Neuron: Definition, draw and label, parts & classification of neuron according to polarity and according to function  with example.
7. Neuroglia: definition, Classification, draw and label, functions of each of them.  
8. Peripheral nerve: structural organization of  a peripheral nerve.(what is nerve fibre, nerve bundle, what is endoneurium, perineurium & epineurium
9. gray and white matter:  Composition, location of these in cerebrum, spinal cord and cerebellum
10. ganglia and nucleus:  Definition, example.
11. Synapse: Definition, parts, different types of synapse, How impulse passage from one neuron to other neuron?
12. Neurotransmitter:  Define, classification, function.
13. Plexus: Definition, formation, type and examples
14. Receptor: definition, classification, location
15. Reflex : definition, component of reflex arc, classification . name of normal and abnormal reflex.  
16. Cranial cavity : boundary and content of anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossa
17. Orbital cavity : boundary and content

Patella: lecture note

 Patella is the largest sesamoid bone of the body 

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It is a flat, rounded triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. 

Babies are born with a patella of soft cartilage which begins to ossify into bone at about four years of age.

Anatomical point 

1. pointed apex is directed downward

2. anaterior surface is convex 

3 posterior surface bears two facet lateral facet is larger than the medial facet 

it is located Within the quadriceps tendon, anterior to the knee joint

The patella (kneecap) is located at the front of the knee joint, within the patellofemoral groove of the femur. Its superior aspect is attached to the quadriceps tendon and inferior aspect to the patellar ligament.

Attachment : The apex of the patella is situated inferiorly and is connected to the tibial tuberosity by the patellar ligament. The base forms the superior aspect of the bone and provides the attachment area for the quadriceps tendon.

patella helps knee extension, allows for smooth movement during knee flexion/extension, protects the anterior surface of the knee joint

The patellofemoral joint is where the back of your patella (kneecap) and femur (thigh bone) meet at the front of your knee. 

It's involved in climbing, walking on an incline, and several other knee movements. 

It's also the joint affected by a common injury called "runner's knee.

Ossification. The patella is ossified from a single center, 

which usually makes its appearance in the second or third year, 

but may be delayed until the sixth year. More rarely, the bone is developed by two centers, placed side by side. 

Ossification is completed about the age of puberty.

summary of BRCA1 and BRCA2

BRCA1 and BRCA2: The most common cause of hereditary breast cancer is an inherited mutation in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. In normal cells, these genes help make proteins that repair damaged DNA. Mutated versions of these genes can lead to abnormal cell growth, which can lead to cancer.

The first major gene associated with hereditary breast cancer was BRCA1, located on chromosome 17.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, but act recessively on the cellular level as tumor suppressor genes involved in double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) break repair

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations may account for up to 10% of all breast cancers, or 1 out of every 10 cases.

Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer and have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation often have a family history of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and other cancers. Still, most people who develop breast cancer did not inherit a genetic mutation linked to breast cancer and have no family history of the disease.

Overall, white women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer than African American women, although the gap between them has been closing in recent years. In women under age 40, breast cancer is more common in African American women. African American women are also more likely to die from breast cancer at any age. Asian, Hispanic, and Native American women have a lower risk of developing and dying from breast cancer.

Risk in different groups also varies by type of breast cancer. For example, African American women are more likely to have the less common triple-negative breast cancer.

Many studies have found that taller women have a higher risk of breast cancer than shorter women. The reasons for this aren’t exactly clear, but it may have something to do with factors that affect early growth, such as nutrition early in life, as well as hormonal or genetic factors. 

Breasts are made up of fatty tissue, fibrous tissue, and glandular tissue. Breasts appear denser on a mammogram when they have more glandular and fibrous tissue and less fatty tissue. Women with dense breasts on mammogram have a higher risk of breast cancer than women with average breast density. Unfortunately, dense breast tissue can also make it harder to see cancers on mammograms.

A number of factors can affect breast density, such as age, menopausal status, the use of certain drugs (including menopausal hormone therapy), pregnancy, and genetics.

Women diagnosed with certain types of benign (non-cancer) breast conditions may have a higher risk of breast cancer. Some of these conditions are more closely linked to breast cancer risk than others. Doctors often divide benign breast conditions into different groups, depending on how they affect this risk.

Fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome is a X link dominant genetic condition in which mutation occurs  in the FMR1  gene cause fragile X syndrome.

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this disorder is located on the X chromosome, one of the two sex chromosomes. (The Y chromosome is the other sex chromosome.) The inheritance is dominant if one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. X-linked dominant means that in females (who have two X chromosomes), a mutation in one of the two copies of a gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. In males (who have only one X chromosome), a mutation in the only copy of a gene in each cell causes the disorder. In most cases, males experience more severe symptoms of the disorder than females.
Fragile X syndrome occurs in approximately 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females
Symptoms include balance problems, shaky hands, unstable mood, memory loss, cognitive problems and numbness in the hands and feet. 
Affected individuals usually have delayed development of speech and language by age 2. Most males with fragile X syndrome have mild to moderate intellectual disability, while about one-third of affected females are intellectually disabled. Children with fragile X syndrome may also have anxiety and hyperactive behavior such as fidgeting or impulsive actions. They may have attention deficit disorder (ADD), which includes an impaired ability to maintain attention and difficulty focusing on specific tasks.

Alcohol withdrawal syndrome

Alcohol withdrawal syndrome   can occur following a reduction in alcohol  use after a period of excessive use.

Symptoms typically include

Sweating 

anxiety 

Vomiting

Shakines

Fast heart rate 

Mild fever 

Alcoholic hallucinations

Autonomic instability  

Symptoms typically begin around six hours following the last drink, are worst at 24 to 72 hours, and improve by seven days.

Alcohol withdrawal may occur in those who are addicted on  alcohol 

The typical treatment of alcohol withdrawal is with benzodiazepins such as chlordiazepoxide or diazepam

Often the amounts given are based on a person's symptoms.

 Thiamineis recommended routinely. Electrolyte imbalance and reduce blood sugar level should also be treated.

 Early treatment improves outcomes

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